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<title>[2107.03374] Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code</title>
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<meta property=og:description content="We introduce Codex, a GPT language model fine-tuned on publicly available code from GitHub, and study its Python code-writing capabilities. A distinct production version of Codex powers GitHub Copilot. On HumanEval, a new evaluation set we release to measure functional correctness for synthesizing programs from docstrings, our model solves 28.8% of the problems, while GPT-3 solves 0% and GPT-J solves 11.4%. Furthermore, we find that repeated sampling from the model is a surprisingly effective strategy for producing working solutions to difficult prompts. Using this method, we solve 70.2% of our problems with 100 samples per problem. Careful investigation of our model reveals its limitations, including difficulty with docstrings describing long chains of operations and with binding operations to variables. Finally, we discuss the potential broader impacts of deploying powerful code generation technologies, covering safety, security, and economics.">
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<meta name=citation_title content="Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code"><meta name=citation_author content="Chen, Mark"><meta name=citation_author content="Tworek, Jerry"><meta name=citation_author content="Jun, Heewoo"><meta name=citation_author content="Yuan, Qiming"><meta name=citation_author content="Pinto, Henrique Ponde de Oliveira"><meta name=citation_author content="Kaplan, Jared"><meta name=citation_author content="Edwards, Harri"><meta name=citation_author content="Burda, Yuri"><meta name=citation_author content="Joseph, Nicholas"><meta name=citation_author content="Brockman, Greg"><meta name=citation_author content="Ray, Alex"><meta name=citation_author content="Puri, Raul"><meta name=citation_author content="Krueger, Gretchen"><meta name=citation_author content="Petrov, Michael"><meta name=citation_author content="Khlaaf, Heidy"><meta name=citation_author content="Sastry, Girish"><meta name=citation_author content="Mishkin, Pamela"><meta name=citation_author content="Chan, Brooke"><meta name=citation_author content="Gray, Scott"><meta name=citation_author content="Ryder, Nick"><meta name=citation_author content="Pavlov, Mikhail"><meta name=citation_author content="Power, Alethea"><meta name=citation_author content="Kaiser, Lukasz"><meta name=citation_author content="Bavarian, Mohammad"><meta name=citation_author content="Winter, Clemens"><meta name=citation_author content="Tillet, Philippe"><meta name=citation_author content="Such, Felipe Petroski"><meta name=citation_author content="Cummings, Dave"><meta name=citation_author content="Plappert, Matthias"><meta name=citation_author content="Chantzis, Fotios"><meta name=citation_author content="Barnes, Elizabeth"><meta name=citation_author content="Herbert-Voss, Ariel"><meta name=citation_author content="Guss, William Hebgen"><meta name=citation_author content="Nichol, Alex"><meta name=citation_author content="Paino, Alex"><meta name=citation_author content="Tezak, Nikolas"><meta name=citation_author content="Tang, Jie"><meta name=citation_author content="Babuschkin, Igor"><meta name=citation_author content="Balaji, Suchir"><meta name=citation_author content="Jain, Shantanu"><meta name=citation_author content="Saunders, William"><meta name=citation_author content="Hesse, Christopher"><meta name=citation_author content="Carr, Andrew N."><meta name=citation_author content="Leike, Jan"><meta name=citation_author content="Achiam, Josh"><meta name=citation_author content="Misra, Vedant"><meta name=citation_author content="Morikawa, Evan"><meta name=citation_author content="Radford, Alec"><meta name=citation_author content="Knight, Matthew"><meta name=citation_author content="Brundage, Miles"><meta name=citation_author content="Murati, Mira"><meta name=citation_author content="Mayer, Katie"><meta name=citation_author content="Welinder, Peter"><meta name=citation_author content="McGrew, Bob"><meta name=citation_author content="Amodei, Dario"><meta name=citation_author content="McCandlish, Sam"><meta name=citation_author content="Sutskever, Ilya"><meta name=citation_author content="Zaremba, Wojciech"><meta name=citation_date content=2021/07/07><meta name=citation_online_date content=2021/07/14><meta name=citation_pdf_url content=https://arxiv.org/pdf/2107.03374><meta name=citation_arxiv_id content=2107.03374><meta name=citation_abstract content="We introduce Codex, a GPT language model fine-tuned on publicly available code from GitHub, and study its Python code-writing capabilities. A distinct production version of Codex powers GitHub Copilot. On HumanEval, a new evaluation set we release to measure functional correctness for synthesizing programs from docstrings, our model solves 28.8% of the problems, while GPT-3 solves 0% and GPT-J solves 11.4%. Furthermore, we find that repeated sampling from the model is a surprisingly effective strategy for producing working solutions to difficult prompts. Using this method, we solve 70.2% of our problems with 100 samples per problem. Careful investigation of our model reveals its limitations, including difficulty with docstrings describing long chains of operations and with binding operations to variables. Finally, we discuss the potential broader impacts of deploying powerful code generation technologies, covering safety, security, and economics.">
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<h1>Computer Science &gt; Machine Learning</h1>
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[Submitted on 7 Jul 2021 (<a href=https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.03374v1>v1</a>), last revised 14 Jul 2021 (this version, v2)]</div>
<h1 class="title mathjax"><span class="descriptor sf-hidden">Title:</span>Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code</h1>
<div class=authors><span class="descriptor sf-hidden">Authors:</span><a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Chen,+M" rel=nofollow>Mark Chen</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Tworek,+J" rel=nofollow>Jerry Tworek</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Jun,+H" rel=nofollow>Heewoo Jun</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Yuan,+Q" rel=nofollow>Qiming Yuan</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=de+Oliveira+Pinto,+H+P" rel=nofollow>Henrique Ponde de Oliveira Pinto</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Kaplan,+J" rel=nofollow>Jared Kaplan</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Edwards,+H" rel=nofollow>Harri Edwards</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Burda,+Y" rel=nofollow>Yuri Burda</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Joseph,+N" rel=nofollow>Nicholas Joseph</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Brockman,+G" rel=nofollow>Greg Brockman</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Ray,+A" rel=nofollow>Alex Ray</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Puri,+R" rel=nofollow>Raul Puri</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Krueger,+G" rel=nofollow>Gretchen Krueger</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Petrov,+M" rel=nofollow>Michael Petrov</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Khlaaf,+H" rel=nofollow>Heidy Khlaaf</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Sastry,+G" rel=nofollow>Girish Sastry</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Mishkin,+P" rel=nofollow>Pamela Mishkin</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Chan,+B" rel=nofollow>Brooke Chan</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Gray,+S" rel=nofollow>Scott Gray</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Ryder,+N" rel=nofollow>Nick Ryder</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Pavlov,+M" rel=nofollow>Mikhail Pavlov</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Power,+A" rel=nofollow>Alethea Power</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Kaiser,+L" rel=nofollow>Lukasz Kaiser</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Bavarian,+M" rel=nofollow>Mohammad Bavarian</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Winter,+C" rel=nofollow>Clemens Winter</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Tillet,+P" rel=nofollow>Philippe Tillet</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Such,+F+P" rel=nofollow>Felipe Petroski Such</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Cummings,+D" rel=nofollow>Dave Cummings</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Plappert,+M" rel=nofollow>Matthias Plappert</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Chantzis,+F" rel=nofollow>Fotios Chantzis</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Barnes,+E" rel=nofollow>Elizabeth Barnes</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Herbert-Voss,+A" rel=nofollow>Ariel Herbert-Voss</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Guss,+W+H" rel=nofollow>William Hebgen Guss</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Nichol,+A" rel=nofollow>Alex Nichol</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Paino,+A" rel=nofollow>Alex Paino</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Tezak,+N" rel=nofollow>Nikolas Tezak</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Tang,+J" rel=nofollow>Jie Tang</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Babuschkin,+I" rel=nofollow>Igor Babuschkin</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Balaji,+S" rel=nofollow>Suchir Balaji</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Jain,+S" rel=nofollow>Shantanu Jain</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Saunders,+W" rel=nofollow>William Saunders</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Hesse,+C" rel=nofollow>Christopher Hesse</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Carr,+A+N" rel=nofollow>Andrew N. Carr</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Leike,+J" rel=nofollow>Jan Leike</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Achiam,+J" rel=nofollow>Josh Achiam</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Misra,+V" rel=nofollow>Vedant Misra</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Morikawa,+E" rel=nofollow>Evan Morikawa</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Radford,+A" rel=nofollow>Alec Radford</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Knight,+M" rel=nofollow>Matthew Knight</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Brundage,+M" rel=nofollow>Miles Brundage</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Murati,+M" rel=nofollow>Mira Murati</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Mayer,+K" rel=nofollow>Katie Mayer</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Welinder,+P" rel=nofollow>Peter Welinder</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=McGrew,+B" rel=nofollow>Bob McGrew</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Amodei,+D" rel=nofollow>Dario Amodei</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=McCandlish,+S" rel=nofollow>Sam McCandlish</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Sutskever,+I" rel=nofollow>Ilya Sutskever</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Zaremba,+W" rel=nofollow>Wojciech Zaremba</a></div> <div id=download-button-info hidden class=sf-hidden>View a PDF of the paper titled Evaluating Large Language Models Trained on Code, by Mark Chen and 57 other authors</div>
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<blockquote class="abstract mathjax">
<span class="descriptor sf-hidden">Abstract:</span>We introduce Codex, a GPT language model fine-tuned on publicly available code from GitHub, and study its Python code-writing capabilities. A distinct production version of Codex powers GitHub Copilot. On HumanEval, a new evaluation set we release to measure functional correctness for synthesizing programs from docstrings, our model solves 28.8% of the problems, while GPT-3 solves 0% and GPT-J solves 11.4%. Furthermore, we find that repeated sampling from the model is a surprisingly effective strategy for producing working solutions to difficult prompts. Using this method, we solve 70.2% of our problems with 100 samples per problem. Careful investigation of our model reveals its limitations, including difficulty with docstrings describing long chains of operations and with binding operations to variables. Finally, we discuss the potential broader impacts of deploying powerful code generation technologies, covering safety, security, and economics.
</blockquote>
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<td class="tablecell label">Comments:</td>
<td class="tablecell comments mathjax">corrected typos, added references, added authors, added acknowledgements</td>
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<td class="tablecell label">Subjects:</td>
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<span class=primary-subject>Machine Learning (cs.LG)</span></td>
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<td class="tablecell arxivid"><span class=arxivid><a href=https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.03374>arXiv:2107.03374</a> [cs.LG]</span></td>
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<td class="tablecell arxivdoi"> <a href=https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2107.03374 id=arxiv-doi-link>https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2107.03374</a><div class=button-and-tooltip>
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<h2>Submission history</h2> From: Mark Chen [<a href=https://arxiv.org/show-email/545d8d9c/2107.03374 rel=nofollow>view email</a>] <br> <strong><a href=https://arxiv.org/abs/2107.03374v1 rel=nofollow>[v1]</a></strong>
Wed, 7 Jul 2021 17:41:24 UTC (1,466 KB)<br>
<strong>[v2]</strong>
Wed, 14 Jul 2021 17:16:02 UTC (1,467 KB)<br>
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