744 lines
399 KiB
HTML
744 lines
399 KiB
HTML
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Page saved with SingleFile
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url: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring
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saved date: Fri Jan 02 2026 15:49:18 GMT+0100 (Central European Standard Time)
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--><meta charset=utf-8>
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<title>Automated essay scoring - Wikipedia</title>
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<img class=mw-logo-icon 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<h1 id=firstHeading class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class=mw-page-title-main>Automated essay scoring</span></h1>
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<div id=siteSub class=noprint>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div>
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</div><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang=en dir=ltr><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style=display:none>Automatic grading of educational assignments</div>
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<b>Automated essay scoring</b> (<b>AES</b>) is the use of specialized computer programs to assign grades to essays written in an educational setting. It is a form of <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_assessment title="Educational assessment">educational assessment</a> and an application of <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing title="Natural language processing">natural language processing</a>. Its objective is to classify a large set of textual entities into a small number of discrete categories, corresponding to the possible grades, for example, the numbers 1 to 6. Therefore, it can be considered a problem of <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_classification title="Statistical classification">statistical classification</a>.
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<p>Several factors have contributed to a growing interest in AES. Among them are cost, accountability, standards, and technology. Rising education costs have led to pressure to hold the educational system accountable for results by imposing standards. The advance of information technology promises to measure educational achievement at reduced cost.
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<p>The use of AES for <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-stakes_testing title="High-stakes testing">high-stakes testing</a> in education has generated significant backlash, with opponents pointing to research that computers cannot yet grade writing accurately and arguing that their use for such purposes promotes teaching writing in reductive ways (i.e. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaching_to_the_test title="Teaching to the test">teaching to the test</a>).
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=History>History</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>Most historical summaries of AES trace the origins of the field to the work of <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellis_Batten_Page title="Ellis Batten Page">Ellis Batten Page</a>.<sup id=cite_ref-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-1><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>1<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> In 1966, he argued<sup id=cite_ref-Page1966_2-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Page1966-2><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>2<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> for the possibility of scoring essays by computer, and in 1968 he published<sup id=cite_ref-3 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-3><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>3<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> his successful work with a program called Project Essay Grade (PEG). Using the technology of that time, computerized essay scoring would not have been cost-effective,<sup id=cite_ref-4 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-4><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>4<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> so Page abated his efforts for about two decades. Eventually, Page sold PEG to <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_Incorporated title="Measurement Incorporated">Measurement Incorporated</a>.
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<p>By 1990, desktop computers had become so powerful and so widespread that AES was a practical possibility. As early as 1982, a UNIX program called Writer's Workbench was able to offer punctuation, spelling and grammar advice.<sup id=cite_ref-5 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-5><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>5<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> In collaboration with several companies (notably Educational Testing Service), Page updated PEG and ran some successful trials in the early 1990s.<sup id=cite_ref-Page_1994_6-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Page_1994-6><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>6<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>Peter Foltz and <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Landauer title="Thomas Landauer">Thomas Landauer</a> developed a system using a scoring engine called the Intelligent Essay Assessor (IEA). IEA was first used to score essays in 1997 for their undergraduate courses.<sup id=cite_ref-7 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-7><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>7<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> It is now a product from Pearson Educational Technologies and used for scoring within a number of commercial products and state and national exams.
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<p>IntelliMetric is Vantage Learning's AES engine. Its development began in 1996.<sup id=cite_ref-Elliot_2003a_8-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Elliot_2003a-8><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>8<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> It was first used commercially to score essays in 1998.<sup id=cite_ref-9 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-9><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>9<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>Educational Testing Service offers "e-rater", an automated essay scoring program. It was first used commercially in February 1999.<sup id=cite_ref-10 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-10><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>10<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Jill Burstein was the team leader in its development. ETS's Criterion Online Writing Evaluation Service uses the e-rater engine to provide both scores and targeted feedback.
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<p>Lawrence Rudner has done some work with Bayesian scoring, and developed a system called BETSY (Bayesian Essay Test Scoring sYstem).<sup id=cite_ref-Rudner_2002_11-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Rudner_2002-11><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>11<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Some of his results have been published in print or online, but no commercial system incorporates BETSY as yet.
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<p>Under the leadership of Howard Mitzel and Sue Lottridge, Pacific Metrics developed a constructed response automated scoring engine, CRASE. Currently utilized by several state departments of education and in a U.S. Department of Education-funded Enhanced Assessment Grant, Pacific Metrics’ technology has been used in large-scale formative and summative assessment environments since 2007.
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<p>Measurement Inc. acquired the rights to PEG in 2002 and has continued to develop it.<sup id=cite_ref-12 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-12><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>12<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>In 2012, the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_and_Flora_Hewlett_Foundation class=mw-redirect title="William and Flora Hewlett Foundation">Hewlett Foundation</a> sponsored a competition on <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaggle title=Kaggle>Kaggle</a> called the Automated Student Assessment Prize (ASAP).<sup id=cite_ref-13 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-13><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>13<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> 201 challenge participants attempted to predict, using AES, the scores that human raters would give to thousands of essays written to eight different prompts. The intent was to demonstrate that AES can be as reliable as human raters, or more so. The competition also hosted a separate demonstration among nine AES vendors on a subset of the ASAP data. Although the investigators reported that the automated essay scoring was as reliable as human scoring,<sup id=cite_ref-14 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-14><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>14<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> this claim was not substantiated by any statistical tests because some of the vendors required that no such tests be performed as a precondition for their participation.<sup id=cite_ref-15 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-15><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>15<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the claim that the Hewlett Study demonstrated that AES can be as reliable as human raters has since been strongly contested,<sup id=cite_ref-Perelman_2013_16-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Perelman_2013-16><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>16<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup><sup id=cite_ref-17 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-17><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>17<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> including by <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randy_E._Bennett class=mw-redirect title="Randy E. Bennett">Randy E. Bennett</a>, the Norman O. Frederiksen Chair in Assessment Innovation at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_Testing_Service title="Educational Testing Service">Educational Testing Service</a>.<sup id=cite_ref-18 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-18><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>18<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Some of the major criticisms of the study have been that five of the eight datasets consisted of paragraphs rather than essays, four of the eight data sets were graded by human readers for content only rather than for writing ability, and that rather than measuring human readers and the AES machines against the "true score", the average of the two readers' scores, the study employed an artificial construct, the "resolved score", which in four datasets consisted of the higher of the two human scores if there was a disagreement. This last practice, in particular, gave the machines an unfair advantage by allowing them to round up for these datasets.<sup id=cite_ref-Perelman_2013_16-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Perelman_2013-16><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>16<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>In 1966, Page hypothesized that, in the future, the computer-based judge will be better correlated with each human judge than the other human judges are.<sup id=cite_ref-Page1966_2-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Page1966-2><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>2<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Despite criticizing the applicability of this approach to essay marking in general, this hypothesis was supported for marking free text answers to short questions, such as those typical of the British <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCSE title=GCSE>GCSE</a> system.<sup id=cite_ref-Nesli2020_19-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Nesli2020-19><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>19<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Results of <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supervised_learning title="Supervised learning">supervised learning</a> demonstrate that the automatic systems perform well when marking by different human teachers is in good agreement. Unsupervised <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_analysis title="Cluster analysis">clustering</a> of answers showed that excellent papers and weak papers formed well-defined clusters, and the automated marking rule for these clusters worked well, whereas marks given by human teachers for the third cluster ('mixed') can be controversial, and the reliability of any assessment of works from the 'mixed' cluster can often be questioned (both human and computer-based).<sup id=cite_ref-Nesli2020_19-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Nesli2020-19><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>19<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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</p>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=Different_dimensions_of_essay_quality>Different dimensions of essay quality</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Different dimensions of essay quality"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>According to a recent survey,<sup id=cite_ref-20 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-20><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>20<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> modern AES systems try to score different dimensions of an essay's quality in order to provide feedback to users. These dimensions include the following items:
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</p>
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<ul><li>Grammaticality: following grammar rules</li>
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<li>Usage: using of prepositions, word usage</li>
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<li>Mechanics: following rules for spelling, punctuation, capitalization</li>
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<li>Style: word choice, sentence structure variety</li>
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<li>Relevance: how relevant of the content to the prompt</li>
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<li>Organization: how well the essay is structured</li>
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<li>Development: development of ideas with examples</li>
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<li>Cohesion: appropriate use of transition phrases</li>
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<li>Coherence: appropriate transitions between ideas</li>
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<li>Thesis Clarity: clarity of the thesis</li>
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<li>Persuasiveness: convincingness of the major argument</ul>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=Procedure>Procedure</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>From the beginning, the basic procedure for AES has been to start with a training set of essays that have been carefully hand-scored.<sup id=cite_ref-21 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-21><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>21<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> The program evaluates surface features of the text of each essay, such as the total number of words, the number of subordinate clauses, or the ratio of uppercase to lowercase letters—quantities that can be measured without any human insight. It then constructs a mathematical model that relates these quantities to the scores that the essays received. The same model is then applied to calculate scores of new essays.
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<p>Recently, one such mathematical model was created by Isaac Persing and Vincent Ng.<sup id=cite_ref-22 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-22><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>22<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> which not only evaluates essays on the above features, but also on their argument strength. It evaluates various features of the essay, such as the agreement level of the author and reasons for the same, adherence to the prompt's topic, locations of argument components (major claim, claim, premise), errors in the arguments, cohesion in the arguments among various other features. In contrast to the other models mentioned above, this model is closer in duplicating human insight while grading essays. Due to the growing popularity of deep neural networks, deep learning approaches have been adopted for automated essay scoring, generally obtaining superior results, often surpassing inter-human agreement levels.<sup id=cite_ref-23 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-23><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>23<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>The various AES programs differ in what specific surface features they measure, how many essays are required in the training set, and most significantly in the mathematical modeling technique. Early attempts used <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_regression title="Linear regression">linear regression</a>. Modern systems may use linear regression or other machine learning techniques often in combination with other statistical techniques such as <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis title="Latent semantic analysis">latent semantic analysis</a><sup id=cite_ref-24 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-24><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>24<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> and <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayesian_inference title="Bayesian inference">Bayesian inference</a>.<sup id=cite_ref-Rudner_2002_11-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Rudner_2002-11><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>11<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>The automated essay scoring task has also been studied in the cross-domain setting using machine learning models, where the models are trained on essays written for one prompt (topic) and tested on essays written for another prompt. Successful approaches in the cross-domain scenario are based on deep neural networks<sup id=cite_ref-25 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-25><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>25<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> or models that combine deep and shallow features.<sup id=cite_ref-26 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-26><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>26<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=Criteria_for_success>Criteria for success</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Criteria for success"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>Any method of assessment must be judged on validity, fairness, and reliability.<sup id=cite_ref-27 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-27><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>27<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> An instrument is valid if it actually measures the trait that it purports to measure. It is fair if it does not, in effect, penalize or privilege any one class of people. It is reliable if its outcome is repeatable, even when irrelevant external factors are altered.
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<p>Before computers entered the picture, high-stakes essays were typically given scores by two trained human raters. If the scores differed by more than one point, a more experienced third rater would settle the disagreement. In this system, there is an easy way to measure reliability: by <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rater_reliability title="Inter-rater reliability">inter-rater agreement</a>. If raters do not consistently agree within one point, their training may be at fault. If a rater consistently disagrees with how other raters look at the same essays, that rater probably needs extra training.
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<p>Various statistics have been proposed to measure inter-rater agreement. Among them are percent agreement, <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%27s_Pi title="Scott's Pi">Scott's π</a>, <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cohen%27s_kappa title="Cohen's kappa">Cohen's κ</a>, <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krippendorff%27s_Alpha class=mw-redirect title="Krippendorff's Alpha">Krippendorf's α</a>, <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient class=mw-redirect title="Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient">Pearson's correlation coefficient r</a>, <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%27s_rank_correlation_coefficient title="Spearman's rank correlation coefficient">Spearman's rank correlation coefficient</a> ρ, and Lin's <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordance_correlation_coefficient title="Concordance correlation coefficient">concordance correlation coefficient</a>.
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<p>Percent agreement is a simple statistic applicable to grading scales with scores from 1 to n, where usually 4 ≤ n ≤ 6. It is reported as three figures, each a percent of the total number of essays scored: exact agreement (the two raters gave the essay the same score), adjacent agreement (the raters differed by at most one point; this includes exact agreement), and extreme disagreement (the raters differed by more than two points). Expert human graders were found to achieve exact agreement on 53% to 81% of all essays, and adjacent agreement on 97% to 100%.<sup id=cite_ref-28 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-28><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>28<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>Inter-rater agreement can now be applied to measuring the computer's performance. A set of essays is given to two human raters and an AES program. If the computer-assigned scores agree with one of the human raters as well as the raters agree with each other, the AES program is considered reliable. Alternatively, each essay is given a "true score" by taking the average of the two human raters' scores, and the two humans and the computer are compared on the basis of their agreement with the true score.
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<p>Some researchers have reported that their AES systems can, in fact, do better than a human. Page made this claim for PEG in 1994.<sup id=cite_ref-Page_1994_6-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Page_1994-6><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>6<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Scott Elliot said in 2003 that IntelliMetric typically outperformed human scorers.<sup id=cite_ref-Elliot_2003a_8-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Elliot_2003a-8><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>8<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> AES machines, however, appear to be less reliable than human readers for any kind of complex writing test.<sup id=cite_ref-29 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-29><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>29<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>In current practice, high-stakes assessments such as the GMAT are always scored by at least one human. AES is used in place of a second rater. A human rater resolves any disagreements of more than one point.<sup id=cite_ref-Yang_2002_30-0 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Yang_2002-30><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>30<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=Criticism>Criticism</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>AES has been criticized on various grounds. Yang <i>et al</i>. mention "the over-reliance on surface features of responses, the insensitivity to the content of responses and to creativity, and the vulnerability to new types of cheating and test-taking strategies."<sup id=cite_ref-Yang_2002_30-1 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-Yang_2002-30><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>30<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Several critics are concerned that students' motivation will be diminished if they know that no human will read their writing.<sup id=cite_ref-31 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-31><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>31<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> Among the most telling critiques are reports of intentionally gibberish essays being given high scores.<sup id=cite_ref-32 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-32><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>32<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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</p>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=HumanReaders.Org_Petition>HumanReaders.Org Petition</h3><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: HumanReaders.Org Petition"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>On 12 March 2013, HumanReaders.Org launched an <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_petition title="Online petition">online petition</a>, "Professionals Against Machine Scoring of Student Essays in High-Stakes Assessment". Within weeks, the petition gained thousands of signatures, including <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>,<sup id=cite_ref-33 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-33><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>33<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> and was cited in a number of newspapers, including <i><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>,<sup id=cite_ref-34 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-34><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>34<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> and on a number of education and technology blogs.<sup id=cite_ref-35 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-35><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>35<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>The petition describes the use of AES for high-stakes testing as "trivial", "reductive", "inaccurate", "undiagnostic", "unfair" and "secretive".<sup id=cite_ref-36 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-36><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>36<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>In a detailed summary of research on AES, the petition site notes, "RESEARCH FINDINGS SHOW THAT no one—students, parents, teachers, employers, administrators, legislators—can rely on machine scoring of essays ... AND THAT machine scoring does not measure, and therefore does not promote, authentic acts of writing."<sup id=cite_ref-37 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-37><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>37<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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<p>The petition specifically addresses the use of AES for high-stakes testing and says nothing about other possible uses.
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</p>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=Software>Software</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Software"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<p>Most resources for automated essay scoring are proprietary.
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eRater – published by <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_Testing_Service title="Educational Testing Service">Educational Testing Service</a>
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Intellimetric – by Vantage Learning
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Project Essay Grade<sup id=cite_ref-38 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-38><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>38<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup> – by Measurement, Inc.
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comparison of top AI essay grading tools<sup id=cite_ref-39 class=reference><a href=#cite_note-39><span class=cite-bracket>[</span>39<span class=cite-bracket>]</span></a></sup>
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</p>
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id=References>References</h2><span class=mw-editsection><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>[</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Automated_essay_scoring&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class=mw-editsection-bracket>]</span></span></div>
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<div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns" style=column-width:calc(0.9*30em)><ol class=references>
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<li id=cite_note-1><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-1 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Page, E.B. (2003). "Project Essay Grade: PEG", p. 43. In Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds., <i>Automated Essay Scoring: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, <style data-mw-deduplicate=TemplateStyles:r1238218222 class=sf-hidden>.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url(data:image/svg+xml;base64,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)right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}}</style><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805839739 title=Special:BookSources/0805839739><bdi>0805839739</bdi></a><br>- Larkey, Leah S., and W. Bruce Croft (2003). "A Text Categorization Approach to Automated Essay Grading", p. 55. In Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds. <i>Automated Essay Scoring: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805839739 title=Special:BookSources/0805839739><bdi>0805839739</bdi></a><br>- Keith, Timothy Z. (2003). "Validity of Automated Essay Scoring Systems", p. 153. In Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds., <i>Automated Essay Scoring: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805839739 title=Special:BookSources/0805839739><bdi>0805839739</bdi></a><br>- Shermis, Mark D., Jill Burstein, and Claudia Leacock (2006). "Applications of Computers in Assessment and Analysis of Writing", p. 403. In MacArthur, Charles A., Steve Graham, and Jill Fitzgerald, eds., <i>Handbook of Writing Research</i>. Guilford Press, New York, <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59385-190-1 title=Special:BookSources/1-59385-190-1><bdi>1-59385-190-1</bdi></a><br>- Attali, Yigal, Brent Bridgeman, and Catherine Trapani (2010). "Performance of a Generic Approach in Automated Essay Scoring", p. 4. <i>Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment</i>, <b>10</b>(3)<br>- Wang, Jinhao, and Michelle Stallone Brown (2007). "Automated Essay Scoring Versus Human Scoring: A Comparative Study", p. 6. <i>Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment</i>, <b>6</b>(2)<br>- Bennett, Randy Elliot, and Anat Ben-Simon (2005). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://clickit.ort.org.il/files/upl/224004906/934404432.pdf>"Toward Theoretically Meaningful Automated Essay Scoring"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007070145/http://clickit.ort.org.il/files/upl/224004906/934404432.pdf>Archived</a> 7 October 2007 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, p. 6. Retrieved 19 March 2012-.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-Page1966-2><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Page1966_2-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Page1966_2-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFPage1966 class="citation journal cs1">Page, E. B. (1966). "The imminence of... grading essays by computer". <i>The Phi Delta Kappan</i>. <b>47</b> (5): <span class=nowrap>238–</span>243. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20371545>20371545</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Phi+Delta+Kappan&rft.atitle=The+imminence+of...+grading+essays+by+computer&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=238-243&rft.date=1966&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20371545%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Page&rft.aufirst=E.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-3><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-3 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Page, E.B. (1968). "The Use of the Computer in Analyzing Student Essays", <i>International Review of Education</i>, <b>14</b>(3), 253-263.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-4><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-4 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Page, E.B. (2003), pp. 44-45.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-5><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-5 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>MacDonald, N.H., L.T. Frase, P.S. Gingrich, and S.A. Keenan (1982). "The Writers Workbench: Computer Aids for Text Analysis", <i>IEEE Transactions on Communications</i>, <b>3</b>(1), 105-110.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-Page_1994-6><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Page_1994_6-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Page_1994_6-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text>Page, E.B. (1994). "New Computer Grading of Student Prose, Using Modern Concepts and Software", <i>Journal of Experimental Education</i>, <b>62</b>(2), 127-142.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-7><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-7 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Rudner, Lawrence. <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://echo.edres.org:8080/betsy/three_prominent.htm>"Three prominent writing assessment programs"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309232819/http://echo.edres.org:8080/betsy/three_prominent.htm>Archived</a> 9 March 2012 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 6 March 2012.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-Elliot_2003a-8><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Elliot_2003a_8-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Elliot_2003a_8-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text>Elliot, Scott (2003). "Intellimetric TM: From Here to Validity", p. 75. In Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds., <i>Automated Essay Scoring: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805839739 title=Special:BookSources/0805839739><bdi>0805839739</bdi></a></span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-9><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-9 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>"<a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.vantagelearning.com/products/intellimetric/intellimetric-how-it-works/>IntelliMetric®: How it Works</a>", Vantage Learning. Retrieved 28 February 2012.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-10><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-10 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Burstein, Jill (2003). "The E-rater(R) Scoring Engine: Automated Essay Scoring with Natural Language Processing", p. 113. In Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds., <i>Automated Essay Scoring: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective</i>. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805839739 title=Special:BookSources/0805839739><bdi>0805839739</bdi></a></span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-Rudner_2002-11><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Rudner_2002_11-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Rudner_2002_11-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text>Rudner, Lawrence (ca. 2002). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://echo.edres.org:8080/betsy/bayesian_ov.htm>"Computer Grading using Bayesian Networks-Overview"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308214828/http://echo.edres.org:8080/betsy/bayesian_ov.htm>Archived</a> 8 March 2012 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 7 March 2012.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-12><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-12 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.measurementinc.com/Solutions/AssessmentTechnologies>"Assessment Technologies"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20111229163132/http://www.measurementinc.com/Solutions/AssessmentTechnologies>Archived</a> 29 December 2011 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Measurement Incorporated. Retrieved 9 March 2012.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-13><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-13 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.hewlett.org/newsroom/press-release/hewlett-foundation-sponsors-prize-improve-automated-scoring-student-essays>Hewlett prize"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330215434/http://www.hewlett.org/newsroom/press-release/hewlett-foundation-sponsors-prize-improve-automated-scoring-student-essays>Archived</a> 30 March 2012 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Retrieved 5 March 2012.</span>
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</li>
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<li id=cite_note-14><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-14 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href="http://www.uakron.edu/im/online-newsroom/news_details.dot?newsId=40920394-9e62-415d-b038-15fe2e72a677&pageTitle=Top%20Story%20Headline&crumbTitle=Man%20and%20%20machine:%20Better%20writers,%20better%20grades">"Man and machine: Better writers, better grades"</a>. University of Akron. 12 April 2012<span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>4 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Man+and+machine%3A+Better+writers%2C+better+grades&rft.date=2012-04-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uakron.edu%2Fim%2Fonline-newsroom%2Fnews_details.dot%3FnewsId%3D40920394-9e62-415d-b038-15fe2e72a677%26pageTitle%3DTop%2520Story%2520Headline%26crumbTitle%3DMan%2520and%2520%2520machine%3A%2520Better%2520writers%2C%2520better%2520grades&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span><br>- Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds. <i>Handbook of Automated Essay Evaluation: Current Applications and New Directions</i>. Routledge, 2013.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-15><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-15 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFRivard2013 class="citation news cs1">Rivard, Ry (15 March 2013). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://www.insidehighered.com/news/2013/03/15/professors-odds-machine-graded-essays>"Humans Fight Over Robo-Readers"</a>. <i>Inside Higher Ed</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>14 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Inside+Higher+Ed&rft.atitle=Humans+Fight+Over+Robo-Readers&rft.date=2013-03-15&rft.aulast=Rivard&rft.aufirst=Ry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.insidehighered.com%2Fnews%2F2013%2F03%2F15%2Fprofessors-odds-machine-graded-essays&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-Perelman_2013-16><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Perelman_2013_16-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Perelman_2013_16-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFPerelman2013 class="citation journal cs1">Perelman, Les (August 2013). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href="http://www.journalofwritingassessment.org/article.php?article=69">"Critique of Mark D. Shermis & Ben Hamner, "Contrasting State-of-the-Art Automated Scoring of Essays: Analysis"<span class=cs1-kern-right></span>"</a>. <i>Journal of Writing Assessment</i>. <b>6</b> (1)<span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>13 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Writing+Assessment&rft.atitle=Critique+of+Mark+D.+Shermis+%26+Ben+Hamner%2C+%22Contrasting+State-of-the-Art+Automated+Scoring+of+Essays%3A+Analysis%22&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2013-08&rft.aulast=Perelman&rft.aufirst=Les&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journalofwritingassessment.org%2Farticle.php%3Farticle%3D69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-17><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-17 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Perelman, L. (2014). "When 'the state of the art is counting words'", <i>Assessing Writing</i>, <b>21</b>, 104-111.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-18><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-18 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFBennett2015 class="citation journal cs1">Bennett, Randy E. (March 2015). "The Changing Nature of Educational Assessment". <i>Review of Research in Education</i>. <b>39</b> (1): <span class=nowrap>370–</span>407. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.3102%2F0091732X14554179>10.3102/0091732X14554179</a>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145592665>145592665</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Research+in+Education&rft.atitle=The+Changing+Nature+of+Educational+Assessment&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=370-407&rft.date=2015-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3102%2F0091732X14554179&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145592665%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Randy+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-Nesli2020-19><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Nesli2020_19-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Nesli2020_19-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFSüzenMirkesLevesleyGorban2020 class="citation journal cs1">Süzen, N.; Mirkes, E. M.; Levesley, J; Gorban, A. N. (2020). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procs.2020.02.171>"Automatic short answer grading and feedback using text mining methods"</a>. <i>Procedia Computer Science</i>. <b>169</b>: <span class=nowrap>726–</span>743. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class=id-lock-free title="Freely accessible"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://arxiv.org/abs/1807.10543>1807.10543</a></span>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class=id-lock-free title="Freely accessible"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.procs.2020.02.171>10.1016/j.procs.2020.02.171</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Procedia+Computer+Science&rft.atitle=Automatic+short+answer+grading+and+feedback+using+text+mining+methods&rft.volume=169&rft.pages=726-743&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1807.10543&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.procs.2020.02.171&rft.aulast=S%C3%BCzen&rft.aufirst=N.&rft.au=Mirkes%2C+E.+M.&rft.au=Levesley%2C+J&rft.au=Gorban%2C+A.+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.procs.2020.02.171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-20><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-20 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFKe2019 class="citation book cs1">Ke, Zixuan (9 August 2019). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://www.ijcai.org/Proceedings/2019/0879.pdf>"Automated Essay Scoring: A Survey of the State of the Art"</a> <span class=cs1-format>(PDF)</span>. <i>Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence</i>. pp. <span class=nowrap>6300–</span>6308. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class=id-lock-free title="Freely accessible"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.24963%2Fijcai.2019%2F879>10.24963/ijcai.2019/879</a></span>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9992411-4-1 title=Special:BookSources/978-0-9992411-4-1><bdi>978-0-9992411-4-1</bdi></a><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>11 April</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Automated+Essay+Scoring%3A+A+Survey+of+the+State+of+the+Art&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+Twenty-Eighth+International+Joint+Conference+on+Artificial+Intelligence&rft.pages=6300-6308&rft.date=2019-08-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.24963%2Fijcai.2019%2F879&rft.isbn=978-0-9992411-4-1&rft.aulast=Ke&rft.aufirst=Zixuan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ijcai.org%2FProceedings%2F2019%2F0879.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-21><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-21 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Keith, Timothy Z. (2003), p. 149.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-22><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-22 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Persing, Isaac, and Vincent Ng (2015). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.aclweb.org/anthology/P/P15/P15-1053.pdf>"Modeling Argument Strength in Student Essays"</a>, pp. 543-552. In <i>Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 7th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing (Volume 1: Long Papers)</i>. Retrieved 2015-10-22.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-23><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-23 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFYangCaoWenWu2020 class="citation journal cs1">Yang, Ruosong; Cao, Jiannong; Wen, Zhiyuan; Wu, Youzheng; He, Xiaodong (2020). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://aclanthology.org/2020.findings-emnlp.141>"Enhancing Automated Essay Scoring Performance via Fine-tuning Pre-trained Language Models with Combination of Regression and Ranking"</a>. <i>Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2020</i>. Online: Association for Computational Linguistics: <span class=nowrap>1560–</span>1569. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class=id-lock-free title="Freely accessible"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.18653%2Fv1%2F2020.findings-emnlp.141>10.18653/v1/2020.findings-emnlp.141</a></span>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class=id-lock-free title="Freely accessible"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://hdl.handle.net/10397%2F105512>10397/105512</a></span>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:226299478>226299478</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Findings+of+the+Association+for+Computational+Linguistics%3A+EMNLP+2020&rft.atitle=Enhancing+Automated+Essay+Scoring+Performance+via+Fine-tuning+Pre-trained+Language+Models+with+Combination+of+Regression+and+Ranking&rft.pages=1560-1569&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10397%2F105512&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A226299478%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18653%2Fv1%2F2020.findings-emnlp.141&rft.aulast=Yang&rft.aufirst=Ruosong&rft.au=Cao%2C+Jiannong&rft.au=Wen%2C+Zhiyuan&rft.au=Wu%2C+Youzheng&rft.au=He%2C+Xiaodong&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faclanthology.org%2F2020.findings-emnlp.141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-24><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-24 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Bennett, Randy Elliot, and Anat Ben-Simon (2005), p. 7.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-25><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-25 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFCaoJinWanYu2020 class="citation book cs1">Cao, Yue; Jin, Hanqi; Wan, Xiaojun; Yu, Zhiwei (25 July 2020). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.1145/3397271.3401037>"Domain-Adaptive Neural Automated Essay Scoring"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 43rd International ACM SIGIR Conference on Research and Development in Information Retrieval</i>. SIGIR '20. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. <span class=nowrap>1011–</span>1020. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3397271.3401037>10.1145/3397271.3401037</a>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-8016-4 title=Special:BookSources/978-1-4503-8016-4><bdi>978-1-4503-8016-4</bdi></a>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220730151>220730151</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Domain-Adaptive+Neural+Automated+Essay+Scoring&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+43rd+International+ACM+SIGIR+Conference+on+Research+and+Development+in+Information+Retrieval&rft.place=New+York%2C+NY%2C+USA&rft.series=SIGIR+%2720&rft.pages=1011-1020&rft.pub=Association+for+Computing+Machinery&rft.date=2020-07-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220730151%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F3397271.3401037&rft.isbn=978-1-4503-8016-4&rft.aulast=Cao&rft.aufirst=Yue&rft.au=Jin%2C+Hanqi&rft.au=Wan%2C+Xiaojun&rft.au=Yu%2C+Zhiwei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1145%2F3397271.3401037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-26><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-26 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFCozmaButnaruIonescu2018 class="citation journal cs1">Cozma, Mădălina; Butnaru, Andrei; Ionescu, Radu Tudor (2018). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://aclanthology.org/P18-2080>"Automated essay scoring with string kernels and word embeddings"</a>. <i>Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 2: Short Papers)</i>. Melbourne, Australia: Association for Computational Linguistics: <span class=nowrap>503–</span>509. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class=id-lock-free title="Freely accessible"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://arxiv.org/abs/1804.07954>1804.07954</a></span>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.18653%2Fv1%2FP18-2080>10.18653/v1/P18-2080</a>. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5070986>5070986</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+56th+Annual+Meeting+of+the+Association+for+Computational+Linguistics+%28Volume+2%3A+Short+Papers%29&rft.atitle=Automated+essay+scoring+with+string+kernels+and+word+embeddings&rft.pages=503-509&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1804.07954&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5070986%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.18653%2Fv1%2FP18-2080&rft.aulast=Cozma&rft.aufirst=M%C4%83d%C4%83lina&rft.au=Butnaru%2C+Andrei&rft.au=Ionescu%2C+Radu+Tudor&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faclanthology.org%2FP18-2080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-27><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-27 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Chung, Gregory K.W.K., and Eva L. Baker (2003). "Issues in the Reliability and Validity of Automated Scoring of Constructed Responses", p. 23. In: <i>Automated Essay Scoring: A Cross-Disciplinary Perspective</i>. Shermis, Mark D., and Jill Burstein, eds. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Mahwah, New Jersey, <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0805839739 title=Special:BookSources/0805839739><bdi>0805839739</bdi></a></span>
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<li id=cite_note-28><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-28 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Elliot, Scott (2003), p. 77.<br>- Burstein, Jill (2003), p. 114.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-29><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-29 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFBennett2006 class="citation web cs1">Bennett, Randy E. (May 2006). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924032135/http://www.iaea.info/documents/paper_1162a26d7.pdf>"Technology and Writing Assessment: Lessons Learned from the US National Assessment of Educational Progress"</a> <span class=cs1-format>(PDF)</span>. <i>International Association for Educational Assessment</i>. Archived from <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.iaea.info/documents/paper_1162a26d7.pdf>the original</a> <span class=cs1-format>(PDF)</span> on 24 September 2015<span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=International+Association+for+Educational+Assessment&rft.atitle=Technology+and+Writing+Assessment%3A+Lessons+Learned+from+the+US+National+Assessment+of+Educational+Progress&rft.date=2006-05&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Randy+E.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iaea.info%2Fdocuments%2Fpaper_1162a26d7.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span><br>- <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFMcCurry2010 class="citation journal cs1">McCurry, D. (2010). "Can machine scoring deal with broad and open writing tests as well as human readers?". <i>Assessing Writing</i>. <b>15</b> (2): <span class=nowrap>118–</span>129. <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier) class=mw-redirect title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.asw.2010.04.002>10.1016/j.asw.2010.04.002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Assessing+Writing&rft.atitle=Can+machine+scoring+deal+with+broad+and+open+writing+tests+as+well+as+human+readers%3F&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=118-129&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.asw.2010.04.002&rft.aulast=McCurry&rft.aufirst=D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span><br>- <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFR._Bridgeman2013 class="citation book cs1">R. Bridgeman (2013). Shermis, Mark D.; Burstein, Jill (eds.). <i>Handbook of Automated Essay Evaluation</i>. New York: Routledge. pp. <span class=nowrap>221–</span>232.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+Automated+Essay+Evaluation&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=221-232&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.au=R.+Bridgeman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-Yang_2002-30><span class=mw-cite-backlink>^ <a href=#cite_ref-Yang_2002_30-0><span class=cite-accessibility-label>Jump up to: </span><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href=#cite_ref-Yang_2002_30-1><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class=reference-text>Yang, Yongwei, Chad W. Buckendahl, Piotr J. Juszkiewicz, and Dennison S. Bhola (2002). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://irt.com.ne.kr/data/automatedscoring1.pdf>"A Review of Strategies for Validating Computer-Automated Scoring"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20160113040838/http://irt.com.ne.kr/data/automatedscoring1.pdf>Archived</a> 13 January 2016 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Applied Measurement in Education</i>, <b>15</b>(4). Retrieved 8 March 2012.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-31><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-31 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text>Wang, Jinhao, and Michelle Stallone Brown (2007), pp. 4-5.<br>- Dikli, Semire (2006). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://escholarship.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/jtla/article/download/1640/1489>"An Overview of Automated Scoring of Essays"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408121139/http://escholarship.bc.edu/ojs/index.php/jtla/article/download/1640/1489>Archived</a> 8 April 2013 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <i>Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment</i>, <b>5</b>(1)<br>- Ben-Simon, Anat (2007). "Introduction to Automated Essay Scoring (AES)", PowerPoint presentation, Tbilisi, Georgia, September 2007.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-32><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-32 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFWinerip2012 class="citation news cs1">Winerip, Michael (22 April 2012). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/23/education/robo-readers-used-to-grade-test-essays.html>"Facing a Robo-Grader? Just Keep Obfuscating Mellifluously"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Facing+a+Robo-Grader%3F+Just+Keep+Obfuscating+Mellifluously&rft.date=2012-04-22&rft.aulast=Winerip&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2012%2F04%2F23%2Feducation%2Frobo-readers-used-to-grade-test-essays.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-33><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-33 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20191118034831/http://humanreaders.org/petition/results.php>"Signatures >> Professionals Against Machine Scoring Of Student Essays In High-Stakes Assessment"</a>. <i>HumanReaders.Org</i>. Archived from <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://humanreaders.org/petition/results.php>the original</a> on 18 November 2019<span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HumanReaders.Org&rft.atitle=Signatures+%3E%3E+Professionals+Against+Machine+Scoring+Of+Student+Essays+In+High-Stakes+Assessment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanreaders.org%2Fpetition%2Fresults.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-34><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-34 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFMarkoff2013 class="citation news cs1">Markoff, John (4 April 2013). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/05/science/new-test-for-computers-grading-essays-at-college-level.html>"Essay-Grading Software Offers Professors a Break"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Essay-Grading+Software+Offers+Professors+a+Break&rft.date=2013-04-04&rft.aulast=Markoff&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2013%2F04%2F05%2Fscience%2Fnew-test-for-computers-grading-essays-at-college-level.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span><br>- <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFGarner2013 class="citation news cs1">Garner, Richard (5 April 2013). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/professors-angry-over-essays-marked-by-computer-8562276.html>"Professors angry over essays marked by computer"</a>. <i>The Independent</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Professors+angry+over+essays+marked+by+computer&rft.date=2013-04-05&rft.aulast=Garner&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fuk%2Fhome-news%2Fprofessors-angry-over-essays-marked-by-computer-8562276.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-35><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-35 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFCorrigan2013 class="citation web cs1">Corrigan, Paul T. (25 March 2013). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://teachingandlearninginhighered.org/2013/03/25/petition-against-machine-scoring-essays-humanreaders-org/>"Petition Against Machine Scoring Essays, HumanReaders.Org"</a>. <i>Teaching & Learning in Higher Ed</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Teaching+%26+Learning+in+Higher+Ed.&rft.atitle=Petition+Against+Machine+Scoring+Essays%2C+HumanReaders.Org&rft.date=2013-03-25&rft.aulast=Corrigan&rft.aufirst=Paul+T.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fteachingandlearninginhighered.org%2F2013%2F03%2F25%2Fpetition-against-machine-scoring-essays-humanreaders-org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span><br>- <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite id=CITEREFJaffee2013 class="citation web cs1">Jaffee, Robert David (5 April 2013). <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/robert-david-jaffee/computers-cannot-read_b_3018372.html>"Computers Cannot Read, Write or Grade Papers"</a>. <i>Huffington Post</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=Computers+Cannot+Read%2C+Write+or+Grade+Papers&rft.date=2013-04-05&rft.aulast=Jaffee&rft.aufirst=Robert+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2Frobert-david-jaffee%2Fcomputers-cannot-read_b_3018372.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-36><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-36 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://humanreaders.org/petition/>"Professionals Against Machine Scoring Of Student Essays In High-Stakes Assessment"</a>. <i>HumanReaders.Org</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HumanReaders.Org&rft.atitle=Professionals+Against+Machine+Scoring+Of+Student+Essays+In+High-Stakes+Assessment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanreaders.org%2Fpetition%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-37><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-37 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://humanreaders.org/petition/research_findings.htm>"Research Findings >> Professionals Against Machine Scoring Of Student Essays In High-Stakes Assessment"</a>. <i>HumanReaders.Org</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HumanReaders.Org&rft.atitle=Research+Findings+%3E%3E+Professionals+Against+Machine+Scoring+Of+Student+Essays+In+High-Stakes+Assessment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanreaders.org%2Fpetition%2Fresearch_findings.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span><br>- <link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://humanreaders.org/petition/works_cited.htm>"Works Cited >> Professionals Against Machine Scoring Of Student Essays In High-Stakes Assessment"</a>. <i>HumanReaders.Org</i><span class=reference-accessdate>. Retrieved <span class=nowrap>5 April</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HumanReaders.Org&rft.atitle=Works+Cited+%3E%3E+Professionals+Against+Machine+Scoring+Of+Student+Essays+In+High-Stakes+Assessment&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhumanreaders.org%2Fpetition%2Fworks_cited.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAutomated+essay+scoring" class=Z3988></span></span>
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<li id=cite_note-38><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-38 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=http://www.measurementinc.com/products-services/automated-essay-scoring>"Assessment Technologies"</a> <a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://web.archive.org/web/20190224173427/http://www.measurementinc.com/products-services/automated-essay-scoring>Archived</a> 24 February 2019 at the <a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Measurement, Inc.</span>
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<li id=cite_note-39><span class=mw-cite-backlink><b><a href=#cite_ref-39 aria-label="Jump up" title="Jump up">^</a></b></span> <span class=reference-text><a rel=nofollow class="external text" href=https://ai-essay-grader.com/blog/best-ai-essay-graders>"Best AI Essay Graders – 2025 Comparison"</a>, AI Essay Grader Blog</span>
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</li>
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<p><br>
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<div class=navbox-styles><style data-mw-deduplicate=TemplateStyles:r1129693374 class=sf-hidden>.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li 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.navbox-odd{background-color:transparent;color:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}</style></div><div role=navigation class=navbox aria-labelledby=Natural_language_processing4500 style=padding:3px><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner mw-made-collapsible" style=border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit><tbody><tr><th scope=col class=navbox-title colspan=2><button type=button class="mw-collapsible-toggle mw-collapsible-toggle-default" aria-expanded=true tabindex=0><span class=mw-collapsible-text>hide</span></button><link rel=mw-deduplicated-inline-style href=mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374><style data-mw-deduplicate=TemplateStyles:r1239400231 class=sf-hidden>.mw-parser-output .navbar{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;cursor:inherit}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class=nv-view><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Natural_language_processing title="Template:Natural language processing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a><li class=nv-talk><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_language_processing title="Template talk:Natural language processing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a><li class=nv-edit><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_language_processing title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural language processing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></ul></div><div id=Natural_language_processing4500 style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_processing title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%>General terms<td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-complete title=AI-complete>AI-complete</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bag-of-words_model title="Bag-of-words model">Bag-of-words</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram title=N-gram><i>n</i>-gram</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bigram title=Bigram>Bigram</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigram title=Trigram>Trigram</a></ul></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_understanding title="Natural language understanding">Natural language understanding</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_word title="Stop word">Stop words</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_processing title="Text processing">Text processing</a></ul>
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</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_mining title="Text mining">Text analysis</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
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<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument_mining title="Argument mining">Argument mining</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collocation_extraction title="Collocation extraction">Collocation extraction</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concept_mining title="Concept mining">Concept mining</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coreference#Coreference_resolution title=Coreference>Coreference resolution</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deep_linguistic_processing title="Deep linguistic processing">Deep linguistic processing</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distant_reading title="Distant reading">Distant reading</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_extraction title="Information extraction">Information extraction</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Named-entity_recognition title="Named-entity recognition">Named-entity recognition</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_learning title="Ontology learning">Ontology learning</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing title=Parsing>Parsing</a>
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<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_parsing title="Semantic parsing">semantic</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntactic_parsing_(computational_linguistics) title="Syntactic parsing (computational linguistics)">syntactic</a></ul></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Part-of-speech_tagging title="Part-of-speech tagging">Part-of-speech tagging</a></li>
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<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning) title="Semantic analysis (machine learning)">Semantic analysis</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_role_labeling title="Semantic role labeling">Semantic role labeling</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_decomposition_(natural_language_processing) title="Semantic decomposition (natural language processing)">Semantic decomposition</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_similarity title="Semantic similarity">Semantic similarity</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentiment_analysis title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></ul>
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||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminology_extraction title="Terminology extraction">Terminology extraction</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_mining title="Text mining">Text mining</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textual_entailment title="Textual entailment">Textual entailment</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truecasing title=Truecasing>Truecasing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation title="Word-sense disambiguation">Word-sense disambiguation</a></li>
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||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word-sense_induction title="Word-sense induction">Word-sense induction</a></ul>
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||
</div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style=border-spacing:0><tbody><tr><th id=Text_segmentation252 scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_segmentation title="Text segmentation">Text segmentation</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
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||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compound-term_processing title="Compound-term processing">Compound-term processing</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemmatisation class=mw-redirect title=Lemmatisation>Lemmatisation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis title="Lexical analysis">Lexical analysis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shallow_parsing title="Shallow parsing">Text chunking</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stemming title=Stemming>Stemming</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_boundary_disambiguation title="Sentence boundary disambiguation">Sentence segmentation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word#Word_boundaries title=Word>Word segmentation</a></ul>
|
||
</div></table><div>
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||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_summarization title="Automatic summarization">Automatic summarization</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-document_summarization title="Multi-document summarization">Multi-document summarization</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_extraction title="Sentence extraction">Sentence extraction</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_simplification title="Text simplification">Text simplification</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer-based_machine_translation title="Transfer-based machine translation">Transfer-based</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_machine_translation title="Neural machine translation">Neural</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributional_semantics title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a> models<td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BERT_(language_model) title="BERT (language model)">BERT</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document-term_matrix title="Document-term matrix">Document-term matrix</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_semantic_analysis title="Explicit semantic analysis">Explicit semantic analysis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FastText title=FastText>fastText</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GloVe title=GloVe>GloVe</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_model title="Language model">Language model</a>
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_language_model title="Large language model">large</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_language_model title="Small language model">small</a></ul></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis title="Latent semantic analysis">Latent semantic analysis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_short-term_memory title="Long short-term memory">Long short-term memory</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seq2seq title=Seq2seq>Seq2seq</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformer_(deep_learning_architecture) class=mw-redirect title="Transformer (deep learning architecture)">Transformer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_embedding title="Word embedding">Word embedding</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word2vec title=Word2vec>Word2vec</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_resource title="Language resource">Language resources</a>,<br>datasets and corpora<td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style=border-spacing:0><tbody><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%>Types and<br>standards<td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corpus_linguistics title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_resource title="Lexical resource">Lexical resource</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistic_Linked_Open_Data title="Linguistic Linked Open Data">Linguistic Linked Open Data</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine-readable_dictionary title="Machine-readable dictionary">Machine-readable dictionary</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_text title="Parallel text">Parallel text</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PropBank title=PropBank>PropBank</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_network title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System title="Simple Knowledge Organization System">Simple Knowledge Organization System</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_corpus title="Speech corpus">Speech corpus</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpus title="Text corpus">Text corpus</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thesaurus_(information_retrieval) title="Thesaurus (information retrieval)">Thesaurus (information retrieval)</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treebank title=Treebank>Treebank</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Dependencies title="Universal Dependencies">Universal Dependencies</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%>Data<td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BabelNet title=BabelNet>BabelNet</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_of_English title="Bank of English">Bank of English</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBpedia title=DBpedia>DBpedia</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FrameNet title=FrameNet>FrameNet</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Ngram_Viewer class=mw-redirect title="Google Ngram Viewer">Google Ngram Viewer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UBY title=UBY>UBY</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WordNet title=WordNet>WordNet</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikidata title=Wikidata>Wikidata</a></ul>
|
||
</div></table><div></div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture title="Automatic identification and data capture">Automatic identification<br>and data capture</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_recognition title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_segmentation title="Speech segmentation">Speech segmentation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_synthesis title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_generation title="Natural language generation">Natural language generation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_character_recognition title="Optical character recognition">Optical character recognition</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topic_model title="Topic model">Topic model</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_classification title="Document classification">Document classification</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latent_Dirichlet_allocation title="Latent Dirichlet allocation">Latent Dirichlet allocation</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachinko_allocation title="Pachinko allocation">Pachinko allocation</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_reviewing title="Computer-assisted reviewing">Computer-assisted<br>reviewing</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Automated essay scoring</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordancer title=Concordancer>Concordancer</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_checker title="Grammar checker">Grammar checker</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_text title="Predictive text">Predictive text</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_assessment title="Pronunciation assessment">Pronunciation assessment</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spell_checker title="Spell checker">Spell checker</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-language_user_interface title="Natural-language user interface">Natural language<br>user interface</a><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
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<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatbot title=Chatbot>Chatbot</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_fiction title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_answering title="Question answering">Question answering</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_assistant title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistant</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_user_interface title="Voice user interface">Voice user interface</a></ul>
|
||
</div><tr><th scope=row class=navbox-group style=width:1%>Related<td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style=width:100%;padding:0><div style="padding:0 0.25em">
|
||
<ul><li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language) title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence) title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">Hallucination</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Language_Toolkit title="Natural Language Toolkit">Natural Language Toolkit</a></li>
|
||
<li><a href=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaCy title=SpaCy>spaCy</a></ul>
|
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</div></table></div>
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</div>
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