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<title>[2401.00396] RAGTruth: A Hallucination Corpus for Developing Trustworthy Retrieval-Augmented Language Models</title>
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<meta property=og:description content="Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has become a main technique for alleviating hallucinations in large language models (LLMs). Despite the integration of RAG, LLMs may still present unsupported or contradictory claims to the retrieved contents. In order to develop effective hallucination prevention strategies under RAG, it is important to create benchmark datasets that can measure the extent of hallucination. This paper presents RAGTruth, a corpus tailored for analyzing word-level hallucinations in various domains and tasks within the standard RAG frameworks for LLM applications. RAGTruth comprises nearly 18,000 naturally generated responses from diverse LLMs using RAG. These responses have undergone meticulous manual annotations at both the individual cases and word levels, incorporating evaluations of hallucination intensity. We not only benchmark hallucination frequencies across different LLMs, but also critically assess the effectiveness of several existing hallucination detection methodologies. Furthermore, we show that using a high-quality dataset such as RAGTruth, it is possible to finetune a relatively small LLM and achieve a competitive level of performance in hallucination detection when compared to the existing prompt-based approaches using state-of-the-art large language models such as GPT-4.">
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<meta name=citation_title content="RAGTruth: A Hallucination Corpus for Developing Trustworthy Retrieval-Augmented Language Models"><meta name=citation_author content="Niu, Cheng"><meta name=citation_author content="Wu, Yuanhao"><meta name=citation_author content="Zhu, Juno"><meta name=citation_author content="Xu, Siliang"><meta name=citation_author content="Shum, Kashun"><meta name=citation_author content="Zhong, Randy"><meta name=citation_author content="Song, Juntong"><meta name=citation_author content="Zhang, Tong"><meta name=citation_date content=2023/12/31><meta name=citation_online_date content=2024/05/17><meta name=citation_pdf_url content=https://arxiv.org/pdf/2401.00396><meta name=citation_arxiv_id content=2401.00396><meta name=citation_abstract content="Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has become a main technique for alleviating hallucinations in large language models (LLMs). Despite the integration of RAG, LLMs may still present unsupported or contradictory claims to the retrieved contents. In order to develop effective hallucination prevention strategies under RAG, it is important to create benchmark datasets that can measure the extent of hallucination. This paper presents RAGTruth, a corpus tailored for analyzing word-level hallucinations in various domains and tasks within the standard RAG frameworks for LLM applications. RAGTruth comprises nearly 18,000 naturally generated responses from diverse LLMs using RAG. These responses have undergone meticulous manual annotations at both the individual cases and word levels, incorporating evaluations of hallucination intensity. We not only benchmark hallucination frequencies across different LLMs, but also critically assess the effectiveness of several existing hallucination detection methodologies. Furthermore, we show that using a high-quality dataset such as RAGTruth, it is possible to finetune a relatively small LLM and achieve a competitive level of performance in hallucination detection when compared to the existing prompt-based approaches using state-of-the-art large language models such as GPT-4.">
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<h1>Computer Science &gt; Computation and Language</h1>
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<strong>arXiv:2401.00396</strong> (cs)
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<style>#abs{font-family:"Lucida Grande",Helvetica,Arial,sans-serif!important}#abs h1.title{display:block;font-size:1.8em!important;font-weight:700;margin-block-end:12px;margin-block-start:12px;margin-bottom:12px;margin-inline-end:0px;margin-inline-start:20px;margin-left:20px;margin-right:0px;margin-top:12px}#abs div.authors{font-size:1.2em;line-height:24px;margin-bottom:8px;margin-left:20px;margin-right:0px;margin-top:8px}#abs div.dateline{font-size:0.9em;font-style:italic;margin-bottom:6.5px;margin-left:20px;margin-right:0px;margin-top:6.5px}#abs blockquote.abstract{font-size:1.05em;margin-block-end:21.6px;margin-block-start:14.4px;margin-bottom:21.6px;margin-inline-end:40px;margin-inline-start:40px;background-color:white;border-left:0px;padding:0px}#abs div.metatable{font-size:0.95em!important;margin-bottom:19px;margin-left:20px;margin-right:0px;margin-top:0px;border:0px;padding:0px}#abs div.metatable tbody{vertical-align:middle}#abs tr{margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px}#abs td.tablecell{padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;padding-right:6.5px;padding-left:0px;vertical-align:top;font-size:0.95em!important;margin-top:0px;margin-bottom:0px;border:0px}#abs td.tablecell.label{font-weight:400!important}#abs span.primary-subject{font-weight:700}#abs span.arxivid{font-weight:700}</style>
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[Submitted on 31 Dec 2023 (<a href=https://arxiv.org/abs/2401.00396v1>v1</a>), last revised 17 May 2024 (this version, v2)]</div>
<h1 class="title mathjax"><span class="descriptor sf-hidden">Title:</span>RAGTruth: A Hallucination Corpus for Developing Trustworthy Retrieval-Augmented Language Models</h1>
<div class=authors><span class="descriptor sf-hidden">Authors:</span><a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Niu,+C" rel=nofollow>Cheng Niu</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Wu,+Y" rel=nofollow>Yuanhao Wu</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Zhu,+J" rel=nofollow>Juno Zhu</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Xu,+S" rel=nofollow>Siliang Xu</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Shum,+K" rel=nofollow>Kashun Shum</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Zhong,+R" rel=nofollow>Randy Zhong</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Song,+J" rel=nofollow>Juntong Song</a>, <a href="https://arxiv.org/search/cs?searchtype=author&amp;query=Zhang,+T" rel=nofollow>Tong Zhang</a></div> <div id=download-button-info class=sf-hidden hidden>View a PDF of the paper titled RAGTruth: A Hallucination Corpus for Developing Trustworthy Retrieval-Augmented Language Models, by Cheng Niu and 7 other authors</div>
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<span class="descriptor sf-hidden">Abstract:</span>Retrieval-augmented generation (RAG) has become a main technique for alleviating hallucinations in large language models (LLMs). Despite the integration of RAG, LLMs may still present unsupported or contradictory claims to the retrieved contents. In order to develop effective hallucination prevention strategies under RAG, it is important to create benchmark datasets that can measure the extent of hallucination. This paper presents RAGTruth, a corpus tailored for analyzing word-level hallucinations in various domains and tasks within the standard RAG frameworks for LLM applications. RAGTruth comprises nearly 18,000 naturally generated responses from diverse LLMs using RAG. These responses have undergone meticulous manual annotations at both the individual cases and word levels, incorporating evaluations of hallucination intensity. We not only benchmark hallucination frequencies across different LLMs, but also critically assess the effectiveness of several existing hallucination detection methodologies. Furthermore, we show that using a high-quality dataset such as RAGTruth, it is possible to finetune a relatively small LLM and achieve a competitive level of performance in hallucination detection when compared to the existing prompt-based approaches using state-of-the-art large language models such as GPT-4.
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<h2>Submission history</h2> From: Yuanhao Wu [<a href=https://arxiv.org/show-email/4056eebd/2401.00396 rel=nofollow>view email</a>] <br> <strong><a href=https://arxiv.org/abs/2401.00396v1 rel=nofollow>[v1]</a></strong>
Sun, 31 Dec 2023 04:43:45 UTC (7,284 KB)<br>
<strong>[v2]</strong>
Fri, 17 May 2024 06:29:31 UTC (8,095 KB)<br>
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